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CRITICAL READING STRATEGIES

CAREFULLY read the italicized comments before the passage. These almost always contain valuable information. Then read through the passage fairly slowly UNTIL you can understand the main topic and argument (if the reading is an essay) or the topic and direction of the plot (if the reading is a story). Then read more quickly through the rest of the passage. It is not a good idea to skip the passage and start with the questions. Many if not most of the questions will refer to the topic and point of the passage, so you absolutely need to understand the topic and point of the passage in order to do well. If you are really pressed for time, read the first and last paragraphs of the passage(s) and then the first and last sentences of the other paragraphs. This should provide a rudimentary idea of the gist of the passage(s).  That being said, it is wise to pace yourself carefully to avoid such a scenario: effective time management is an essential ingredient in success on the SAT.

* Underline the main argument if the passage is an essay. Understand whether the argument is positive/negative based on the topic.

* Look for and underline keywords -- topic-related words that are repeated several times in the essay. These words will tend to pop up in some correct answers for the longer passages.

* Figure out the overall mood or tone of the passage in terms of positive/negative. Mark any places where the tone or mood shifts from positive to negative or vice versa. These shifts in mood are often included in the questions.

* Mark any places where another point of view is represented in the passage ~ for example where the author brings up the perspective of another person. Make sure you understand the author's opinion about any other points of view represented in the passage in terms of positive/negative. These places in the essay are often included in the questions.  Be careful as well to keep the author's attitude/argument SEPARATE from the attitude/argument of other people discussed in the passage. 

SPECIAL HINT FOR TWO-PASSAGE EXERCISES

Two-passage exercises are always about the same topic. The two passages will usually (at least 75% of the time) have opposing points of view on that topic. So, if you understand that one passage has a positive argument about the topic, you can assume the other passage has a negative argument. In questions that ask about how the two passages are related, look for an answer that has a contrast based on the topic. 

If the two paragraphs do not have a contrasting relationship, they probably follow a pattern of general-specific: the first paragraph gives a general overview of the topic, and the second paragraph provides more specific detail about that topic.  You could have a question asking about the relationship between the two paragraphs, so look for a general-specific scenario if you have determined the paragraphs are not contrasting.

SPECIAL NOTE: Practice is essential to using these strategies properly. You need to practice many questions to be able to use the strategies quickly and effectively. These strategies should also be used in conjunction with one another when attempting to choose a correct answer.  You should only rely completely on these strategies when you are confused, have eliminated at least two answers, and are trying to select from among the remaining choices.  Keep in mind the golden rule of the critical reading section, which is more important than any P.O.E. strategy.

This strategy is based on the fact that there are no trick questions on the critical reading section. You are not being asked to read between the lines but only to understand what the passage is literally saying. Don’t look for answers that go beyond what the passage is saying because you think the testmakers are trying to trick you. Even questions that ask what the passage is "implying" or "suggesting" are still based directly on literal evidence from the passage. One of the biggest myths of the critical reading section is that you must read between the lines to do well. In fact, the opposite is true – the more you try to read between the lines, the more questions you will get wrong!

Every correct answer on the SAT must be based on evidence from the passage. In order to make sure that the answer accurately captures the meaning of the passage, most correct answers will avoid strong wording. For example, if the question asks about the author's attitude, the correct answer is unlikely to be a strong word such as "scornful" or "thrilled." Usually the word is positive or negative but in a more reasonable way that you would expect from an intellectual author, such as "skeptical" or "admiring." By the same token, avoid answers that claim that something is "always" or "never" true -- in other words, strong factual statements without any exceptions. Strong factual statements without exceptions are usually not correct -- but may be correct if supported by clear evidence from the passage.

Here are some examples of types of strong wording to avoid. These examples are just to give you an idea of what strong wording is ~ you have to train yourself to spot strong wording on the actual test:

Many of the correct answers will be partial or complete paraphrases (rewordings) of what is already in the passage. The easiest way for ETS to create a correct answer is simply to reword what is already in the passage, so this explains why this strategy is often quite effective. These rewordings can have different forms: repeating exact words, using synonyms, using different parts of speech, and using synonyms of different parts of speech.

EXAMPLE: Let’s assume the word "sorrow" is used in the passage. Here are some possible similar wordings:

EXACT WORD: sorrow

SYNONYM: sadness, sullenness, etc.

(just make sure the word is not too strong like "depression")

DIFFERENT PART OF SPEECH: sorrowful, sorrowfully

SYNONYM OF DIFFERENT PART OF SPEECH: sad, gloomily, etc.

Keep in mind that similar wording clues for local questions are often in the excerpt referred to in the passage, but may also come from the immediate context (the same paragraph) or elsewhere in the passage (usually the introduction or conclusion because these state the main topic or argument).

ADVANCED SIMILAR WORDING STRATEGY

Look for keywords and phrases repeated in the questions and answers, even if these keywords or phrases are not used exactly in the passage. These are called "cognate" clues -- different questions and answers may be referring to the same points from the passage and actually share similar wording.

For example, if the second question contains the word "intelligence," and the fifth question has an answer choice that contains this same word or a very similar word, that is a clue that the answer containing this word has a strong chance of being correct. In other words, similar wording doesn’t just have to be between the passage and answer choices, but can also exist between questions and answers or between answers.  Similar wording in the questions and answers occurs because they are referring to the main idea of the passage, or to secondary points within the reading. 

Sets of questions that ask about the same secondary point in the passage are often "linked" just like links of a chain.  These questions usually follow each other within a reading exercise in sets of two or three.  Linked questions often contain wording clues that tie them together, so if you can spot similar wording between different answers (or between different questions and answers), you can pinpoint correct answers more easily.

Many answers, even those that are based on "local" questions, refer to the main idea of the passage -- the overall topic, argument, or theme. Thus, if you have narrowed down your choices and need to make an educated guess, look for the answer that relates most directly to the overall point of the passage.   The reason many correct answers refer to the main idea, even for questions that ask about a specific part of the passage, is that most of the essay is actually designed to support the main idea.   An essay consists of a main argument supported by specific examples and reasoning, so it makes sense that specific details from the passage would fit into the main idea. 

Some answers are simply not relevant to the question. They may actually be supported by evidence from the passage, but are not responding directly to what the question is asking. A simple example would be a question like "What did you have for breakfast?" and the wrong answer is "I am wearing blue jeans." The answer is not even responding directly to the question so it must be wrong!! On the SAT the lack of relevance would obviously not be this easy to see, which is why using strategy #3 can be helpful for confusing questions.

Many correct answers will GENERALIZE from the passage in an intellectual way. It is important to understand the principle that a correct answer cannot have more specific detail than the passage, but it could easily have less specific detail. Here is an example of a sentence from an imaginary passage and a generalized answer:

PASSAGE ARGUMENT:

Einstein and Darwin both challenged the dominant scientific theories in their fields, leading to the breakthroughs for which they are famous.

GENERALIZED ANSWER:

Certain eminent thinkers have distinguished themselves on the basis of their nonconformity with prevailing ideas.

EXPLANATION OF ANSWER:

This answer is stating the argument of the passage in a general way. Notice how the passage is talking about two specific famous scientists but the answer generally mentions "certain eminent thinkers," of which Einstein and Darwin would be specific examples. The passage also mentions "dominant scientific theories," whereas the answer speaks generally about "prevailing ideas." Note as well the similar wording clues: dominant > prevailing, famous > eminent, theories > ideas, challenged > nonconformity.

SPECIAL NOTE ABOUT TWO-PASSAGE EXERCISES:

For two-passage exercises, make absolutely sure that you are looking at the right passage for evidence. In a question that begins, "The author of passage X," you need to look for evidence in passage X, not in the other passage. Many students miss questions in the two-passage exercises because they look for supporting evidence in the wrong passage.

SPECIAL NOTE ABOUT VOCABULARY QUESTIONS:

Vocabulary questions in passage exercises usually feature a fairly common word that has a somewhat unusual definition in the passage.  In general you want to avoid the answer that states the most obvious meaning of the word.  To test whether the meaning fits, substitute the answer choice directly into the passage. 

EXAMPLE OF PASSAGE SENTENCE:

Though Truman had misgivings about employing nuclear weaponry, he ultimately decided that doing so was the most painless way to end the war. 

EXAMPLE OF VOCABULARY QUESTION:

In the passage, the word "employing" most nearly means

(A) hiring

(B) retaining

(C) evaluating

(D) utilizing

(E) coordinating

EXPLANATION OF ANSWER:

The most obvious answer is "hiring" because that is what most people think of when they think of "employing."  Thus, you should avoid this answer.  In this context the word has a less common definition: it means "utilizing" or "using" (answer choice D).  Notice that this meaning also fits very neatly and appropriately into the passage.  

SPECIALIZED STRATEGIES

* Remember that "local" questions (questions that ask you about specific places in the passage) often refer not only to the exact lines listed in the question, but also to the surrounding context. Keep in mind that many of the correct answers to these questions will actually refer to the main point/argument of the passage.  Look for similar wording not just in the actual lines given, but also in the surrounding context.

* For longer passages, the first and last questions are usually "global" questions (questions that ask about the overall point or primary purpose of the passage). Even if the first and last question give you specific lines, it is quite likely that the correct answer is referring to the overall point of the passage so look for an answer that reflects that.

* For two-passage questions that ask what the two authors would agree about, pay the closest attention to the more general answers, especially those with a similar wording clue (a keyword or similar word to a keyword that occurs in both passages).  More general answers tend to be correct for these questions because they encompass both authors more easily.

This section is the most heavily based on vocabulary.  Therefore, it is very difficult to choose a correct answer in some cases unless you know at least a few of the words.  Nevertheless, there are several strategies to use in making educated guesses and narrowing down your answer choices.

STRATEGY #1:

LOOK FOR CONTEXT CLUES

Every sentence will have context clues about the intended meaning of the word(s) in the blank(s).  Many sentences will actually tell you the meaning of the word directly; others will give a synonym of the word elsewhere in the sentence.  You need to learn to spot these clues to get the right answers. 

STRATEGY #2:

LOOK FOR POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE MEANINGS

Try to use the context of the sentence to figure out whether the word in the blank should have a positive or negative meaning.  Once you decide that the word should be positive, or vice versa, you can eliminate answer choices that don't follow the correct meaning. 

STRATEGY #3:

LOOK FOR CONTRASTING RELATIONSHIPS

Many sentences will have a contrast in them in order to make the sentence more confusing.  However, don't be fooled: when you see a contrasting relationship, make sure you choose the answer that follows that relationship.  For example, in a two-blank sentence, if the first word is positive, and the sentence contains a contrast, then look for a negative word to fill the second blank.

STRATEGY #4:

TRY TO FILL THE SECOND BLANK FIRST

In many cases, it is easier to fill the second blank before the first blank.  This is because the word in the second blank has more context clues in the sentence pointing to its meaning.  Once you narrow down the answer choices for the word in the second blank, choose your answer by checking the words for the first blank.

STRATEGY  #5:

DON'T BE AFRAID TO CHOOSE WORDS YOU DON'T KNOW

Many students will get questions wrong because they are too reluctant to choose words they don't know.  Instead, these students will choose words they already know, even though they have a feeling those words don't fit very well into the sentence.  If the words don't fit well into the sentence, then don't choose that answer, even if the only other answers have words you don't know.  Choose one of those other answers, provided you can eliminate more than one answer choice.

STRATEGY #6:

USE WRONG ANSWERS TO YOUR ADVANTAGE

In two-word questions, it is very common for some wrong answers to contain one word that fits in the blank, but not the other word.  Even though the answer is still wrong, one of the words is right, and you can use that word to figure out the intended meaning of the sentence.  Then, once you understand the sentence more clearly, you can choose the correct answer more easily.   

STRATEGY #7:

PLUG IN YOUR OWN WORDS

Like the strategy above (using wrong answers to your advantage), this technique is helpful in figuring out the intended meaning of the sentence.   Using your own vocabulary, try to plug in words that make sense in the sentence.  Then, once the sentence makes sense to you, look for answer choices that have similar meanings to the words you have plugged in. 

WRITING STRATEGIES

There are three multiple-choice sections on the writing test (spotting errors, improving sentences, and improving paragraphs), as well as an essay.   All three of the multiple-choice sections test grammar to some extent, and of course it's important to use correct, sophisticated grammar in your essay.  For the "improving sentences" section, remember the following rule of thumb:

THE CORRECT ANSWER IS THE SHORTEST ANSWER THAT IS GRAMMATICALLY CORRECT

Shorter answers tend to be correct more often on this section than longer ones, but don't be fooled: the longest answer could be the correct one if it's the only answer that is grammatically sound.  Conciseness is also important for the "improving paragraphs" section.  On this section, you should quickly read the paragraph before responding to the questions.  While many questions simply ask about how to replace certain sentences, some questions might ask how to connect different parts of the essay more effectively or even about the tone of the essay, so you need to have an understanding of the overall meaning and structure of the passage.

SAT WRITING RULES AND PRINCIPLES

(LISTED ALPHABETICALLY)

1. ADJECTIVE/ADVERB MISTAKES

A common type of mistake on the SAT involves using an adjective when an adverb is needed. Remember that adjectives can ONLY describe nouns and pronouns. If the word is describing something other than a noun or pronoun, it needs to be an adverb.

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: The problem here is that "quicker" is an adjective, but it is being used to describe the verb "moves." 

CORRECTED VERSION:

2. BECAUSE VS. SINCE

** NOTE: This rule/principle does not apply to the "finding error" section of the writing test, only the "improving sentences" and "improving paragraphs" sections**

The word "since" can create ambiguity in sentences because it has two possible meanings ("because" and "from the time"), so if you have a choice between "because" and "since," choose "because."

EXAMPLE OF WEAK/UNCLEAR USAGE:

STRONGER VERSION #1:

Because she started school last month, she hasn’t had the opportunity to adjust to the new curriculum.

STRONGER VERSION #2:

Ever since she started school last month, she hasn't had the opportunity to adjust to the new curriculum. 

3. COMMAS VS. SEMI-COLONS (COMMA SPLICES)

One of the most common mistakes on the SAT, especially in the "improving sentences" and "improving paragraphs" sections of the test, comma splices happen when a comma is used instead of a semi-colon. Fortunately there is a simple test to determine whether a comma is being used correctly. If the parts of the sentence BEFORE AND AFTER the comma could be their own sentences, then the comma is WRONG and needs to be changed into a semi-colon.

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: The problem here is that the part of the sentence AFTER the comma could be turned into its own sentence: "Therefore, she suffered a mild case of heat stroke." This tells you that the comma is wrong.

CORRECTED VERSION:

SPECIAL NOTE: For this kind of mistake, watch out for the words "however" and "therefore" – they should be preceded by a semi-colon if they come in the middle of a sentence.

4. COMPARISONS WITH ONLY TWO PEOPLE OR THINGS

In a comparison with only two people or things, you need to use a comparison word with an "er" ending or the words "more/less" instead of "most/least."   When referring to only two people or things, you also should use "between" instead of "among."

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

5. COUNT AND NON-COUNT NOUNS

Counts nouns are nouns that have singular and plural forms, for example, pencil(s), person/people, deer, book(s), bacterium/bacteria, and so forth.

Non-count nouns are nouns that lack plural forms, e.g., lettuce, rice, money, happiness, and so forth.

The difference between these kinds of nouns is important because of the words which you need to use with either count or non-count nouns:

WORDS USED WITH COUNT NOUNS: number ("number of books"), few ("few books"), fewer ("fewer books"), and fewest ("fewest books").

WORDS USED WITH NON-COUNT NOUNS: amount ("amount of money"), little ("little money"), less ("less money"), and least ("least money").

SPECIAL NOTE: the word "number," used with count nouns, can either be singular or plural depending on the article used with the word. The phrase "the number" is singular, whereas the phrase "a number" is plural.

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

A large amount of people attended the company party.

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: the word "amount" should only be used with non-count nouns, whereas the word "people" is a plural count noun. The appropriate word used with plural count nouns such as "people" is "number":

CORRECTED VERSION:

A large number of people attended the company party.

6. GERUNDS

Gerunds are words based on verbs that act like nouns and that end in "ing," e.g., swimming, lying, laying, believing, and floccinaucinihilipilificating. (Just seeing if you're paying attention!!)

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

Studying for several tests at the same time make many students mentally sluggish.

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: The word "studying" is a gerund and the simple subject of this sentence. It is singular and so needs to be used with a singular verb. The verb "make," however, is plural because it lacks an "s" ending.

SPECIAL NOTE: Present-tense verbs with an extra "s" ending are singular; present-tense verbs that lack this ending are plural.

CORRECTED VERSION:

Studying for several tests at the same time makes many students mentally sluggish.

If you want to describe a gerund with a word BEFORE the gerund, you need to use a possessive adjective. This is because the gerund works like a noun; you describe a noun with an adjective, so you need to describe a gerund the same way.

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

The mayor opposing the anti-smoking legislation surprised many New Yorkers.

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: The word "opposing" is a gerund that is being described in this sentence by the word "mayor." However, a noun cannot describe another noun in this way (just like you wouldn’t say "him car" but instead "his car"). The word "mayor" must be transformed into a possessive adjective.

CORRECTED VERSION:

The mayor's opposing the anti-smoking legislation surprised many New Yorkers.

7. IF-THEN STATEMENTS

This type of grammatical issue is rare on the SAT. Problems with if-then statements can appear on the test in several incarnations; here are some pointers:

(1)  Avoid using factual words like "will" in if-then statements that describe hypothetical scenarios.  For example, in the incorrect sentence "If humans could travel through time, then the concept of time itself will lose its meaning," the word "will" should be changed to "would."

(2)  In if-then statements that involve hypothetical past-tense scenarios, avoid the phrase "would have" in the first part. For instance, in the incorrect sentence "If you would have picked me up, I would not have had to walk home," use the word "had" instead of "would have" in the first part.

(3)  The phrase "had had" in the first part of a past hypothetical if-then statement is not necessarily considered wrong (the first "had" is a helping verb and the second "had" is the main verb).

(4) In hypothetical scenarios, use the word "were" instead of "was" in the if-portion of the sentence, even for singular subjects. Thus, in the incorrect sentence "If I was you, I would not worry so much," replace "was" with "were."

8. INCORRECT LINKING TERMS

In some sentences with two parts, the context will tell you that the parts should have a contrasting, supporting, or cause-and-effect relationship, but the linking term used in the sentence will be the wrong one.  Or you might have two linking terms when you only need one. 

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

Because the movie failed to appeal to audiences, the studio decided to make a sequel anyway.

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: The context tells you that the sentence has a contrasting relationship, but the word "because" is used in a cause-and-effect relationship.  Thus "because" is the wrong linking term for this sentence. 

CORRECTED VERSION:

Although the movie failed to appeal to audiences, the studio decided to make a sequel anyway.   

9. INTRODUCTORY PHRASES

An introductory phrase is an adjective phrase (the whole phrase works like an adjective) at the beginning of a sentence that is separated from the remainder of the sentence by a comma. Because these phrases describe the subjects of the sentences in which they are used, the subjects need to immediately follow the commas that separate the introductory phrases.

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

Pausing for a brief break from her intense workout, the recliner looked very inviting to the female boxing champion.

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: The phrase that starts "Pausing for a brief break" is an introductory phrase that needs to come immediately before the noun it describes. If you interpret the above sentence literally, then the recliner is pausing from a boxing workout, an obvious impossibility. The person being described by the introductory phrase, the female boxing champion, needs to come immediately after the comma.

CORRECTED VERSION:

Pausing for a brief break from her intense workout, the female boxing champion plopped with a sigh of pleasure into the inviting recliner.

10. LINKED NOUNS (PLURAL VS. SINGULAR)

One mistake on the SAT is to have a plural noun or set of nouns, naming some people, that is linked to a singular noun that describes those people.  This is a mistake because each person should be treated individually (which a plural noun does), not lumped together with the singular noun.  While the mistake on the SAT almost always involves people, it applies to any linked nouns, so be alert to other scenarios.

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

Both Luke and his sister want to become a doctor when they grow up.

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: Both Luke and his sister cannot become only one doctor -- each one will become a separate doctor (provided each one's wish comes true).  That's why the plural noun is needed in the second part of the sentence -- to make sure that each person in the first part is treated separately.

CORRECTED VERSION:

Both Luke and his sister want to become doctors when they grow up.

11. MALAPROPISMS

Malapropisms are misused words or phrases that sound similar to the correct words or phrases in context. This is also one of the hardest mistakes to "beat'" because there is no rule governing vocabulary mistakes. Instead it's a matter of how many words you know and how well you can use vocabulary in context.

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

Perspective college students need to write a personal essay.

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: The word "perspective" means "an opinion or point of view." The correct word is actually "prospective," which means "potential." Notice how similar the two words sound.

CORRECTED VERSION:

Prospective college students need to write a personal essay.

12. MUTUALISM

Mutualism is a grammatical principle whereby different parts of a sentence that connect to another part of the sentence need to be linked independently to that "anchoring" part of the sentence, which usually comes at the end. The two most common types of mutualism covered on the SAT involve comparisons and verb phrases. 

EXAMPLE #1 OF INCORRECT USAGE (COMPARISON):

On the SAT, public school students often score as high or higher than their private school peers.

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: Both parts of the comparison  -- "as high" and "higher than" -- need to agree with the "anchoring" part of the sentence, "their high school peers." However, notice that the first part doesn't agree independently with the anchoring part -- the sentence would read "Public school students often score as high their private school peers." Thus, the word "as" needs to be added to the sentence. 

CORRECTED VERSION:

On the SAT, public school students often score as high as or higher than their private school peers.

EXAMPLE #2 OF INCORRECT USAGE (VERB LINKING):

Although he is a talented athlete, my friend has never and probably will never swim across the English Channel.

CORRECTED VERSION:

Although he is a talented athlete, my friend has never swum and probably will never swim across the English Channel.

13. "NEITHER" BY ITSELF; "EITHER" BY ITSELF; NEITHER/NOR; EITHER/OR

The word "neither" used by itself (without "nor") IS ALWAYS SINGULAR. The same is true of the word "either" used without the word "or."

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

Neither of the gazelles grazing innocently at the river's edge were aware of the lionesses' presence.

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: Since "neither" is being used without "nor" in this sentence, the subject is singular. Thus the sentence needs a singular verb, which is "was" instead of "were."

CORRECTED VERSION:

Neither of the gazelles grazing innocently at the river's edge was aware of the lionesses' presence.

NEITHER WITH NOR / EITHER WITH OR

The noun CLOSER TO THE VERB (after the "nor" or "or") determines whether the verb is singular or plural. If the (pro)noun after "nor" or "or" is singular, the verb is singular; if the (pro)noun is plural, the verb is plural. .

SPECIAL NOTE: This rule also applies to NOT ONLY / BUT ALSO.

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

Neither the thousands of losers nor the grand prize winner realize the amount of luck involved in winning the top award.

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: The word "winner, " since it follows "nor" in this sentence, is used to determine whether the verb is singular or plural. "Winner" is singular, making the verb singular.

CORRECTED VERSION:

Neither the thousands of losers nor the grand prize winner realizes the amount of luck involved in winning the top award.

14. "OTHER" AND "ELSE" IN COMPARISONS

When you are comparing a member of a group to the rest of that group, you MUST use the word "other" or "else." Otherwise you will create a logical impossibility in which the member of the group is being compared directly to itself. Since something can’t be better, worse, bigger, or smaller than itself (for example), you need "other" or "else."

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

Jasmine received a higher score on her chemistry test than everybody in her class.

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: The mistake is that Jasmine is a member of the class, so she is included in the word "everybody." The sentence literally means that Jasmine scored higher than herself, which is clearly impossible unless she has a split personality!

CORRECTED VERSION:

Jasmine received a higher score on her chemistry test than everybody else in her class.

15. PARALLELISM

Parallelism is one of the most important grammatical concepts covered on the test, because it can appear in a variety of contexts. Parallelism comes in several major forms on the test. Generally speaking, parallelism means that linked parts of a sentence (for example, elements in a list) need to have the same basic form. Here are the major forms of parallelism covered on the test:

In a list of several things, each part of the list should have the same grammatical form. The elements should all be nouns, or all adjectives, or all past tense verbs, and so forth. The context determines the form that needs to be repeated. Find the two parts of the list that cannot be changed – those tell you what the third part of the list should be.

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: The first two parts of the list are "-ing" words (running and failing).  The third part of the list needs to have the same form.

CORRECTED VERSION:

The officer ticketed the motorist for running a red light, failing to signal a lane change, and speeding.

PRONOUN PARALLELISM (ALSO KNOWN AS PRONOUN CONSISTENCY)

Pronoun parallelism means that pronouns used to refer to the same thing should all have the same form. The most common type of mistake is mixing up "you" and "one" in the same sentence. Another type of mistake involves using "one" with "person" or a word like "everyone" – "he/she" should refer to "person" or a word like "everyone."

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

If one believes that one’s test was not scored correctly, then you should consult the teacher about the possibility of getting a new grade.

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: The sentence mixes "one" and "you," whereas they should be used consistently.

CORRECTED VERSION #1:

If you believe that your test was not scored correctly, then you should consult the teacher about the possibility of getting a new grade.

CORRECTED VERSION #2:

If one believes that one’s test was not scored correctly, then one should consult the teacher about the possibility of getting a new grade.

When comparing two things, you need to make sure that you are comparing the same kind of thing, in other words, that the parts of the comparison are parallel to one another.

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

In my opinion, members of the chess club have higher IQ's than the math club.

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: The way the sentence is written, the comparison is between the word "members" and the word "club," which is not parallel.  To make the comparison parallel, we need to make sure that the comparison is between "members" and "members."

CORRECTED VERSION:

In my opinion, members of the chess club have higher IQ’s than members of the math club.

PARALLELISM IN TWO-PART CONJUNCTIONS

Two-part conjunctions are covered quite frequently on the SAT writing section. They include the following list:

NEITHER X NOR Y

EITHER X OR Y

NOT ONLY X BUT ALSO Y

BOTH X AND Y

Don’t forget that only the second part of these two-part conjunctions (with the exception of BOTH/AND, which is ALWAYS plural) goes with the verb. An even trickier rule is that both parts of the two-part conjunction (X and Y) have to be PARALLEL, which means they have to have the same part of speech. Otherwise, you have a mistake.

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: The mistake in this sentence is that X = construction (noun) but Y = renovate (verb). The two parts of the sentence don’t match by part of speech.

CORRECTED VERSION:

The government will fund neither the construction of the new building nor the renovation of the old one.

16. PASSIVE AND ACTIVE VOICE

** NOTE: This rule/principle does not apply to the "finding error" section of the writing test, only the "improving sentences" and "improving paragraphs" sections**

The active voice means that the person or thing that performs the action in the sentence (the agent) comes FIRST in the sentence, before the person or thing that the action is performed upon (the object).

The passive voice means that agent comes SECOND, after the object. A common clue that the passive voice is being used is the word "by" to indicate the agent.

On the SAT the active voice is considered better than the passive voice. If you have a choice between sentences and the only difference is that one is written in the passive voice and the other one is written in the active voice, choose the one written in the active voice.

EXAMPLE OF WEAK USAGE (PASSIVE VOICE):

STRONGER VERSION (ACTIVE VOICE):

Making the past perfect tense is easy: just combine HAD and a main verb form (called a past participle) such as "drunk," "sung," "lain," "stridden," or even "had" (the phrase "had had" can definitely be grammatically correct).

The past perfect tense is used to describe an action that has occurred BEFORE a specific event in the past. You should assume on the test that this specific event will be named in the sentence. A mistake would happen when the sentence is talking about something BEFORE another past event, but the past perfect tense is not used.

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

We were on the boat for an hour when the storm suddenly struck.

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: The action of being on the boat took place BEFORE the storm hit, so the sentence should have the past perfect tense.

CORRECTED VERSION:

We had been on the boat for an hour when the storm suddenly struck.

18. PREPOSITIONAL IDIOMS

Some mistakes on the test involve using the wrong preposition in context. Like malapropisms, these mistakes are hard to spot unless you already know the correct usage. It is better not to second-guess yourself too much with mistakes involving prepositions because you may get more wrong than you would without any preparation!

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

The senator’s opposition toward the new bill ensured that it wouldn’t pass.

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: The correct preposition to use with "opposition" is "to" instead of "toward."

CORRECTED VERSION:

The senator’s opposition to the new bill ensured that it wouldn’t pass.

19. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

Whenever a sentence indicates an action that started in the past and goes until the present, you need to use "has" or "have" (plus the main verb) to indicate the action.  The usual clue for using this tense is a word like "since" or "for," telling for how long something has happened.

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

For the last eighty years, women have the right to vote.

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: Notice the sentence is telling how long women have possessed the right to vote, so you need to use the helping verb "have" plus the main verb.  The word "have" is used in the sentence, but there is no helping verb.

CORRECTED VERSION:

For the last eighty years, women have had the right to vote.

20. PRONOUN AGREEMENT

The rule is that a pronoun needs to agree with the noun (or sometimes other pronoun) to which it refers, and that a pronoun should refer clearly to its noun.

Pronouns and the nouns to which they refer need to both be singular or both plural. Noun-pronoun disagreement occurs when a plural pronoun is used with a singular noun, or vice versa.

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

Every doctor attending the conference paid full price for their meals and lodging.

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: The word "their," which is plural, is supposed to refer to the word "doctor, " which is singular. Thus the two words disagree.

CORRECTED VERSION:

Every doctor attending the conference paid full price for his or her meals and lodging.

SINGULAR PRONOUNS THAT EVERYONE THINKS ARE PLURAL

If a pronoun contains the word "one" or "body" in it, that pronoun is SINGULAR. Obviously the word "one" by itself is singular. Here are some examples:

EVERYONE

SOMEONE

ANYONE

NO ONE

NOBODY

EVERYBODY

SOMEBODY

ANYBODY

This type of mistake happens when a pronoun could refer to more than one noun in the sentence, creating confusion about what the sentence is actually saying.

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

Many people prefer a Dell computer to an Apple computer without even considering its design.

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: It's not logically clear in this sentence whether "its" refers to the Dell or to the Apple. It could go either way, though of course the meaning of the sentence changes depending on whether the word "its" refers to the first or second noun.

CORRECTED VERSION #1:

Many people prefer a Dell computer to an Apple computer without even considering the Dell’s design.

CORRECTED VERSION #2:

Many people prefer a Dell computer to an Apple computer without even considering the Apple’s design.

21. REDUNDANCY

Redundancy occurs on the test when a word is used to describe another word yet is ALREADY part of that other word’s definition. Thus the descriptive word is unnecessary because its meaning is already included in the other word.

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

By committing perjury on the stand, the defendant showed himself to be a dishonest liar as well as a thief.

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: The word "liar" in this sentence already contains the meaning of "dishonest" in its definition, so using "dishonest" is redundant.

CORRECTED VERSION: By committing perjury on the stand, the defendant showed himself to be a liar as well as a thief.

REDUNDANCY WITH LINKING TERMS AND PREPOSITIONS

Redundancy can also involve linking terms and prepositions.  For linking terms, this would mean using two linking terms that do exactly the same thing (two supporting terms, two contrasting terms, or two cause-and-effect terms).  For prepositions, this would mean repeating the same preposition twice -- using it once in a phrase with "which" or "whom" and then using it later on in the sentence. 

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE #1 (LINKING TERMS)

She not only received a perfect GPA, but also won the state tennis championship as well.

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: Notice in the second part of the sentence there are two linking terms which are performing the same supporting role -- "also" and "as well."  You only need one of these terms.

CORRECTED VERSION #1:

She not only received a perfect GPA, but also won the state tennis championship.

CORRECTED VERSION #2:

She not only received a perfect GPA, but won the state tennis championship as well.

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE #2 (PREPOSITIONS)

Tragically, crime and poverty are two permanent features of the world in which we live in.

CORRECTED VERSION:

22. SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

This is one of the most commonly tested grammatical principles on the test.

A very common mistake involves using a singular subject with a plural verb, or vice versa. Always try to locate the simple subject (the "bare bones" subject without prepositional phrases, adjectives, etc.) and then determine whether this simple subject is singular or plural. Learn to ignore the two major types of "filler" between the subject and verb – prepositional phrases and phrases separated by commas.

*PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES DO NOT AFFECT SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT.

*PHRASES SEPARATED BY COMMAS DO NOT AFFECT SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT.

*A SUBJECT WITH MORE THAN ONE WORD SEPARATED BY "AND" IS PLURAL

*GROUP NOUNS ARE OFTEN SINGULAR (SEE LIST BELOW)

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

Each of the students in Mrs. Smith's chemistry classes perform a weekly experiment.   

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: The actual subject in this sentence is "each" – the rest of the material in the first part of the sentence is filler made up of prepositional phrases. The word "each" is singular, so the verb needs to be singular, but "perform" is plural (notice the absence of an "s" ending).

CORRECTED VERSION:

Each of the students in Mrs. Smith’s chemistry classes performs a weekly experiment.

SUBJECT AND VERB SEPARATED BY A PHRASE BETWEEN COMMAS

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

The high school valedictorian, as well as the hundreds of other students in the graduating class, have a bright future amidst a growing national economy.

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: The phrase separated by commas doesn't affect subject-verb agreement. The simple subject is thus "valedictorian, " a singular noun. Correspondingly, the verb must be singular.

CORRECTED VERSION:

The high school valedictorian, as well as the hundreds of other students in the graduating class, has a bright future amidst a growing national economy.

SUBJECT-VERB INVERSION

Subject-verb inversion is a situation in which the subject comes after the verb instead of before the verb. Sentences written in this way often begin with prepositional phrases. Because students are expecting the subject to come before the verb, they will often pick the wrong word as the subject, thereby making a mistake with subject-verb agreement.

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: The mistake is that the simple subject in this sentence is "sub-development," which comes after the verb "lie." "Lie" is actually a plural verb (notice it doesn’t have an "s" ending), but the subject is singular.

CORRECTED VERSION:

Beyond that grove of trees lies a new sub-development of million-dollar houses.

SPECIAL NOTE: Whenever a sentence contains the word "there" plus a verb (is, are, was, were, will be), the subject comes after the verb.  The word "there" itself is neither singular nor plural; rather, you must look at the subject after the verb to figure out whether the verb should be singular or plural.  Thus, you wouldn't write "There is a horse and other livestock meandering in the field," but rather "There are a horse and other livestock meandering in the field," because the simple subject is "horse and livestock."

GROUP NOUNS

Nouns that refer to a single group of people, animals, or objects are often singular (though there are exceptions, like the word "police"). Here is a sample list of common singular group nouns:

Audience

Government

Group

Herd

Public

Collection

Class

Crowd

Team

Family

Army

Company

Band

Society

Community

23. SUBJECT AND OBJECT PRONOUNS

Remember the following subject and object pronouns:

SUBJECT PRONOUNS	OBJECT PRONOUNS
I	Me
We	Us
He	Him
She	Her
They	Them
Who	Whom
Whoever	Whomever

SUBJECT AND OBJECT PRONOUNS IN COMPARISONS

One case in which these pronouns are important is comparisons.  Both parts of a comparison using "than" or "as" (remember that "as" should be used twice) need to be subjects or objects. The first part of the comparison determines what the second part should be.  

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

In the final race, I ran much more quickly than him, thereby winning the competition.

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: In this comparison, the two parts are not parallel: "I" is a subject word, but "him" is an object word. They both need to be subject words.

CORRECTED VERSION:

In the final race, I ran much more quickly than he did, thereby winning the competition.

USING OBJECT PRONOUNS IN PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

Prepositional phrases need to contain only object pronouns (see above), except in the special case of "who" or "whoever" used in the middle of a sentence (see below). On the test, the mistake might be hard to spot because the prepositional phrase will have two parts – the pronoun and then a noun. Just cross out the noun and test the pronoun by itself.

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

The neighbors overheard the argument between my brother and I.

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: The word "between" is a preposition, so any pronouns used in the prepositional phrase need to be object words. However, "I" is a subject word, so it needs to be changed to "me."

CORRECTED VERSION:

The neighbors overheard the argument between my brother and me.

SUBJECT PRONOUNS AFTER BE-VERBS

When a sentence contains a BE-VERB (is, are, am, was, were, been, being, be), both parts of the sentence need to be subjects (he, she, we, they, I). A be-verb is like a grammatical equal sign or mirror that reflects the subject on both sides of the verb. Many people already do this correctly when they say "this is she" or "this is he" upon answering the phone, but you need to recognize the same rule in a variety of different contexts.

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

The top two students in the school are the valedictorian and her.

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: The problem here is that we have a be-verb (are), but we have an object word after the verb (her). This needs to be a subject word.

CORRECTED VERSION:

The top two students in the school are the valedictorian and she.

24. VERB TENSE

When a sentence is written within the same time frame, the verb tense needs to be the same throughout the sentence.  Remember that changing verb tense within a sentence is not necessarily wrong, so long as the time frames of the parts of the sentence are clearly different.   For example, if I write, "I went to the mall yesterday, and I will go the beach tomorrow," the sentence is fine because the time frame is clearly shifting from the past to the future. 

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

After she became a diplomat, she travels to many countries on official business.

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: The first part of the sentence is clearly in the past tense, so the second part must be as well, because there is no shift in the time frame.  What's wrong is that the second part of the sentence is written in the present tense.

CORRECTED VERSION:

After she became a diplomat, she traveled to many countries on official business.

25. WHEN VS. WHERE

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: The problem in this sentence is that "where" is referring to "tests," but tests are not places.

CORRECTED VERSION:

26. WHO VS. WHOM

As you can see from the pronoun chart above, "who" and "whoever" are subject words; "whom" and "whomever" are object words. If one of these words is being used in the middle of a sentence, only look at how the word is being used in the second part.

SPECIAL NOTE: There is a simple test for whether you need who(ever) or whom(ever). Substitute in a personal pronoun, either he/she/they or him/her/them. If the pronoun that fits is a subject word, then you know you need who(ever); if the pronoun that fits is an object word, you know you need whom(ever). Remember that you can’t always substitute the pronoun directly in place of who(ever) or whom(ever), but must place it in the most natural place "downstream" in the sentence.

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

The committee will award the scholarship to whomever the members believe has the greatest financial need.

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE:

If we do the substitution test with a personal pronoun, here is what we get:

The members believe he/she has the greatest financial need.

Thus, because he/she fits correctly into the second part of the sentence, we know we need "whoever."

On the SAT writing section, the words "who" or "whom" should be used to refer to people instead of "which." Using "which" to refer to people is a mistake on this test.

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: The mistake in this sentence is using "which" to refer to "consultants," since consultants are people (though they may not always act like it).

CORRECTED VERSION:

Sitting beyond the chairman’s desk are the advertising consultants who deserve the most credit for designing the successful new marketing campaign.

28. WORD USAGE

Certain word usage mistakes might appear when you take the SAT.  The following examples are the most likely ones to appear.

USING "THEY" TO REFER TO ANONYMOUS MOVERS AND SHAKERS

One mistake on the SAT involves using "they" to refer to random anonymous people outside of the sentence who are responsible for making something happen (thus my usage of the term "movers and shakers").

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: The problem here is that "they" doesn’t refer clearly and specifically to the movers and shakers who are responsible for making the test.

CORRECTED VERSION:

** NOTE: This rule/principle does not apply to the "finding error" section of the writing test, only the "improving sentences" and "improving paragraphs" sections**

"Being" is considered weak usage on the SAT. Thus, when you have a choice between using "being" and not using "being" (and no other significant differences), choose the version of the sentence that does not contain "being."

EXAMPLE OF WEAK USAGE:

STRONGER VERSION:

He struggled through the test because he had not done his homework.

The word "reason" should NOT be used with "why" or "because" on the SAT. Doing so creates redundancy in that "reason" already contains the meaning of "why" or "because" in the word itself. Only use "that" with "reason."

EXAMPLE OF INCORRECT USAGE:

Even after a thorough investigation, the police could not determine the reason why the mother had hurt her children.

EXPLANATION OF MISTAKE: The problem is that "why" is already built into the meaning of "reason" – get rid of "why" in the sentence, or "reason."

CORRECTED VERSION #1:

The police could not determine the reason that the mother had hurt her children.

CORRECTED VERSION #2:

The police could not determine why the mother had hurt her children.

HOW TO WRITE A CRITICAL THINKING ESSAY

(HOW TO THINK "OUTSIDE THE BOX")

There are three basic methods that allow you to write a critical thinking thesis: the "it depends" approach, the "middle ground" approach, and the "listing reasons" approach. When you see your topic, try to design an argument based on one of these three approaches.

RULE OF THUMB FOR EXAMPLES: First of all, the most sophisticated approach is to use intellectual examples from history, literature, and current events.  In each main body paragraph, try to use an example from a different area.  Try not to use two literature examples or two historical examples; instead, try to use one of each.  It is also better to have two examples illustrating TWO DIFFERENT POINTS than two examples just illustrating the same exact point.  Therefore, I have tried to give you ways to do this more easily and effectively. 

SPECIAL NOTE ABOUT CONCLUSIONS: In a famous poem by T.S. Eliot, the poet says that the world will end with a "whimper" instead of a "bang."  Well, in your essay, the opposite should be true: you should try to finish with a flourish by using several big SAT words, and a couple Harvard sentence skills (see end of section).  That way, the reader will be left with a very positive impression about the sophistication of your writing.  I also recommend you start your conclusion with the phrase "In the final analysis," followed by a comma.  

METHOD #1: THE "IT DEPENDS" APPROACH

For this approach, one smart strategy is called the "appearances are deceiving" strategy.  What this means is that you argue that one side of the issue may SEEM to be valid, but then you show how in fact it is not valid.  See example #1 below for this sophisticated type of critical thinking argument.  You should try to use the "appearances are deceiving" strategy when you do a one-sided approach to the topic; this will allow you to make a different point for each example.            

Here is a recommended structure for the introduction of an "it depends" essay.  I recommend briefly mentioning your examples in your introduction in order to give the introduction more specific detail and simply to make it longer.

BALANCED VERSION (see below):

*Overall Position on Topic (General Thesis)
*Position for one side of topic
*Description of example #1
*Position for other side of topic
*Description of example #2

ONE-SIDED VERSION:

There are two related versions of the "it depends" method -- the BALANCED VERSION and the ONE-SIDED VERSION. The difference is how you make your examples. In the balanced version, you demonstrate both sides of the issue through examples. You have one main body example demonstrating how one side is valid and one main body example demonstrating how the other side (the flip side) is valid. In the one-sided version you devote both examples to only one side of the issue, but making a different point about that side each time. 

The one-sided version works best when you want to challenge common assumptions about a topic. Challenging common assumptions about a topic allows you to show off your critical thinking abilities. For example, if the topic is asking whether honesty is justified or technology is positive, the common assumption is that the answer is "yes." By devoting both examples to cases in which honesty is not justified or technology is not positive, you are showing off your critical thinking skills.   I recommend you devote part of your essay, or your entire essay, to challenging common assumptions presented by the topic.

SPECIAL NOTE ABOUT DESCRIBING EXAMPLES:

When you describe your examples in the introduction, try to avoid using the passive voice (see grammar rules and principles above for an explanation of the passive voice).  Try instead to use a power verb from the following list to describe your examples: 

Here are some examples of the "it depends" method in action:

TOPIC #1: Is technology the key to progress, or does it actually impede progress?

INTRODUCTION:  When technology is used violently or excessively, it does more harm than good, thereby impeding progress.  Granted, technology has been instrumental in increasing people's standards of living ever since the Industrial Revolution.  That being said, the genocidal use of technology during World War II demonstrates the diabolical potential of technology, its ability to unleash the demons of human nature.  In other cases, technology may SEEM to be highly positive when in fact it is undermining progress.  Aldous Huxley's classic novel Brave New World illustrates the important principle that too much reliance on technology can drain the vitality and meaning out of human life, no matter how many other benefits this technology may provide. 

TOPIC #2: Is deception ever justified?

INTRODUCTION:  Whether deception is justified depends on whether it is selfish or unselfish.  If protecting others from serious harm demands deception, then honesty is definitely not the best policy.   By lying to the Nazis, the people protecting Anne Frank and her family during World War II demonstrated the benefits of unselfish deception.  Deception based on selfish motives, however, causes more harm than good.  When Bill Clinton lied to the American public about his affair with Monica Lewinsky, it seemed justified because it was his own business, but in fact his selfish dishonesty severely undermined people's trust in his leadership and almost ruined his presidency.     

If possible, make the argument that relying excessively on one side or the other has serious drawbacks.  Then in each example, you illustrate the drawbacks of relying too much on each side, ending the example with a reminder of the necessity of having a balanced, "middle ground" approach.
  

INTRODUCTION: People should try to remember the past while also focusing on the problems of the present.  If people rely too heavily on the past, they only hurt themselves in the present.  When Serbian leaders in the early 1990's invaded neighboring countries simply because those other countries had wronged the Serbs hundreds of years ago, they sparked a devastating war on the basis of ancient grievances that had little relevance in the present.  By the same token, ignoring the past means that people are doomed to make mistakes in the present.  In Sophocles' famous play of the same name, Oedipus Rex blindly ignored the prophecy that he would kill his father and marry his mother, leading to the tragic ending of the story in which he literally became blind.          

TOPIC #2: Should a strong leader follow his or her conscience or popular opinion?

INTRODUCTION: A strong leader should always try to balance popular opinion with the voice of his or her conscience. Relying exclusively on his or her own conscience will often cause a leader to make harmful decisions, especially when the leader's "conscience" is flawed.  Richard Nixon thought he was doing the right thing by expanding the war in Vietnam when the war was deeply unpopular, but his decision needlessly and bloodily postponed the eventual withdrawal of America from the conflict.  On the other hand, simply following popular opinion will also cause the leader to make unwise choices.  Bill Clinton could have intervened to stop the genocide in Rwanda in 1994, in which the Hutu Power movement brutally killed hundreds of thousands of defenseless Tutsis, but Clinton allowed the bloodbath to continue because the American public was largely unconcerned about this event.   

METHOD #3: THE "LISTING REASONS" APPROACH

As the name of this approach suggests, you list reasons to support your main argument, which supports only one side of the topic.  Even though your main argument is somewhat simplistic, you are still showing your critical thinking abilities by listing specific reasons to support your position, answering exactly WHY your argument is true.  I recommend listing two specific reasons, one for each example.   This way you can make a different point with each example. 

Remember to try to make an "appearances are deceiving" point whenever you have a one-sided argument.  This will increase the complexity of your essay and tend to get you a higher score, all else being equal. 

TOPIC #1: Is there a greater need for creativity in modern society?

INTRODUCTION: Yes, modern society does indeed have a greater need for creativity.  First of all, people's lives have become controlled too much by technology and efficiency.  Aldous Huxley's classic novel Brave New World illustrates that relying too much on technology drains the creativity and richness out of human life, something all too common in today's world.  Secondly, creativity is the key to great leaps forward in society, especially in fields such as science which seem to rely the least on creative thinking.  If great thinkers like Copernicus and Einstein had not been able to "think outside the box," their history-altering contributions to the scientific growth of society would never have occurred.  

TOPIC #2: Is it acceptable to harm a few people in order to help many people?

INTRODUCTION: No, it is not acceptable to harm a few people to help many people.  First of all, every human life is equally sacred.  Religious texts around the world -- from the Koran to the Bhagavad Gita -- state the principle that intentionally harming an innocent person can never be justified, an idea also promoted by the great European philosopher Immanuel Kant.  Furthermore, the few people who end up getting harmed in such cases are almost always those at the bottom of the social ladder, so such a policy actually hurts the majority by deepening divisions in society.  The Tuskegee syphilis study, in which the victims of an unfair medical study were all poor African American men, shows how policies based on helping the majority tend to follow patterns of bias and discrimination. 

HARVARD SENTENCE SKILLS

The Harvard method of essay writing is based on the importance of demonstrating the sophistication of your ideas and your expression.   There are three ways of doing this: using intellectual examples in the main body of your essay (from history, literature, and current events), using SAT-style vocabulary, and using Harvard sentence skills.  Harvard sentence skills are sophisticated connecting terms (transitional terms) and sentence structures that are designed to impress your reader with your knowledge and usage of advanced writing techniques.  Keep in mind, however, that you don't want to over-use these skills, just as you wouldn't want to cram myriad SAT vocabulary words into every single sentence in your essay (notice how I am using the word "myriad" in a sophisticated way).   Without further ado, let's explore the wonderful world of Harvard sentence skills. 

SENTENCE STRUCTURES

1. NEITHER / NOR [EITHER / OR]

Though both countries have drawn international criticism for their aggressive politics in the war on terror, neither the United States nor Great Britain has wavered in its commitment to military action in the Middle East.

2. PARTICIPIAL PHRASE AT BEGINNING OF SENTENCE

** A participle is either an “ing” word or the third form of a verb (as in “sung” or “drunk”)

Striving to increase its territorial possessions, Nazi Germany invaded a series of countries in the late 1930’s and early 1940’s, though their invasion of the Soviet Union was by far the costliest in human terms. 

Bankrupted by years of financial mismanagement, the oil and gas conglomerate left thousands of embittered investors in the wake of its collapse. 

3. SENTENCE WITH COLON

Few people realize the full extent of the tragedy of the Rwandan genocide: hundreds of thousands of people killed, families torn apart, neighbors turned against neighbors in the bloodiest possible fashion.  

4. SENTENCE WITH SEMI-COLON

Tom Cruise had no right to criticize Brook Shields publicly; her suffering and her psychiatric treatment are her own business. 

5. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES CONTAINING “WHICH” OR "WHOM"

The ease with which the United States defeated Iraq in 2003 demonstrates the profound weakness of the latter country, militarily and economically, following the first Gulf War. 

The city in the story is surrounded by walls beyond which no resident may pass without written permission from the council of elders.

(A) INDEFINITE PRONOUN (some, none, all, one, each, most, many, any, few, several, both, either, neither) + “OF WHICH” or “OF WHOM”

For the summer literature course, the teacher assigned a fairly large number of contemporary novels, some of which I perused almost zealously but most of which I merely skimmed through. 

The presidential debate featured two partisan politicians, neither of whom was interested in engaging in serious dialogue with the other on important social issues. 

6. NOT ONLY / BUT ALSO

As Toni Morrison’s first major literary effort, the novel The Bluest Eye not only reveals its author’s incredible writing skill but also exposes the failures of the American Dream in the life of an innocent young girl.  

7. COMPARISON USING “THAT” OR “THOSE”

Countries in which democracy has flourished tend to have greater economic output than those in which dictators hold sway. 

8. SENTENCE USING “LATTER” OR “FORMER”

Special Note: When you are listing two things or people in your sentence, and want to refer back to one of them, you can use "former" to refer back to the first one, and "latter" to refer back to the second one. 

My mother and father both enjoy playing tennis, but only the former has the skill to beat me in a serious match. 

9. SENTENCE STARTING WITH “THAT” (meaning “The fact that”)

That the United States decisively defeated Iraq is undeniable; what is less clear, however, is whether this military victory was morally justifiable or even strategically necessary. 

10. SENTENCE STARTING WITH “HAD”

Had the Soviet government collapsed after Germany’s invasion of the Soviet Union in the summer of 1941, the Nazis might have accomplished their military objectives and conquered almost all of Europe.

11. SENTENCE WITH APPOSITIVE (a phrase describing a noun, separated by one or two commas)

One of the most important events in European history, the drafting of the Magna Carta in the early 13th century limited the absolute power of the English monarchy and paved the way for modern constitutional law.

12. SENTENCE USING “RESPECTIVELY” (used to match parallel parts of a sentence, the first with the first, the second with the second, and so forth)

The girls’ soccer team and boys’ baseball team won the national and state championships, respectively.

CONNECTING TERMS

(LISTED ALPHABETICALLY)

1. ABSENT (means “in the absence of” or “without”)

Absent a signed waiver from parents, most schools will not permit students to watch R-rated films in class, even for clearly educational purposes.   

2. ALBEIT (means “although,” although it can’t be used directly before a subject-verb combination – used to limit some information already given in the sentence without disagreeing strongly or completely)

The president of the computer club was an excellent student, albeit not enough of an academic superstar to qualify for valedictorian.

3. ASIDE FROM (means “besides” or “except for”)

Aside from minor stomach pain, the patient had no indication of the seriousness of her ulcer.

4. AS OPPOSED TO (used to create a difference between things that might otherwise seem similar)

The leaders of the trading partners created an informal agreement on export limits, as opposed to a formal treaty that would be difficult to alter in the future.  

5. BY THE SAME TOKEN (means “in the same way” or “along the same lines”)

Christian Crusaders in the medieval era committed atrocities in the name of their religious beliefs.  By the same token, modern Islamic groups like Al-Qaeda justify the killing of innocents on the basis of fundamentalist doctrines.

6. BY VIRTUE OF (means “because of” – used in describing some method)

The United States defeated Iraq by virtue of its vastly superior military power.

7. CONSEQUENTLY (used to mean "therefore")

One of the leading causes of divorce is financial difficulty.  Consequently, newly married couples should avoid arguing about money as much as possible. 

8. CONTRARY TO (means “going against”)

Contrary to what many students expect when they apply to college, Ivy League schools are looking for very strong critical thinking abilities rather than long lists of activities. 

10. E.G. (means "for example")

Due to the risk of violence, tourists who wish to visit countries in western Africa, e.g., Angola and Liberia, should avoid leaving designated zones for foreigners.

11. FOR (means "because")

Despite their superficial differences, George W. Bush is actually quite similar to Richard Nixon, for Bush has the same fondness for domestic secrecy and international saber-rattling that Nixon had.

12. FURTHERMORE/MOREOVER (means “in addition”)

The Rwandan genocide highlights the perverse legacy of colonialism.  Furthermore, the indifferent attitude of the international community to the mass killing underscores the failure of modern democratic nations to learn the lessons of history.

13. GIVEN (means “considering”)

Given the amount of time and energy the company has invested in its new product, many consumers should be shocked by the poor quality of the offering. 

14. HENCE (means “therefore”)

London recently suffered a terrorist bombing.  Hence, my family cancelled the trip we had been planning to this world-class capital.

15. I.E. (means "in other words")

The lawyer represented the homeless man pro bono, i.e., without receiving any payment.

16. IN LIEU OF (means “instead of” – used with things that are not readily available or should not be used)

The U.S. government will place economic pressure on the dictator’s country in lieu of military measures that would draw international condemnation. 

20. IN THE FINAL ANALYSIS (used at the beginning of a conclusion)

21. LEST (means "in case" ~ used to give the possible negative consequences of an action)

Democratic governments should never censor artistic expression, lest they stifle the forces of creativity that allow society to flourish.

22. LET ALONE (means "not to mention" in the sense of "never mind")

After failing the final exam, she will be lucky to pass the course, let alone get a high grade.

23. LIKEWISE (place a comma afterwards)

Running every day will improve your cardiovascular health.  Likewise, practicing Harvard sentence skills on a daily basis will sharpen your mind. 

24. NEVERTHELESS / NONETHELESS (contrasting term meaning “however”)

I hardly studied for the chemistry exam.  Nevertheless, I made only a small number of minor mistakes on the test and received an “A” in the course. 

25. NOT TO MENTION / NOT TO MENTION THE FACT THAT (means "in addition to" ~ used in naming something that might seem almost too obvious)

Long vacations tend to put serious strain on family harmony, not to mention on the family bank account. 

The corporate executive undoubtedly committed fraud when he funded his 40th birthday party with company money, not to mention the fact that he had purchased several exorbitantly-priced artworks for his home at the company’s expense.      

26. NOTWITHSTANDING / NOTWITHSTANDING THE FACT THAT . . . (means “despite” or “despite the fact that”)

Notwithstanding the fact that many students dream of attending Ivy League institutions, only those who display a strong intellectual flair can reasonably expect to be admitted.

The soccer teams played an intense and exciting match, notwithstanding the equally intense rainstorm that completely saturated the field.   

27. ON THE BASIS OF (means “based on”)

On the basis of the rumors flying around the school, many students concluded that the prom queen had begun dating one of the geekiest members of the computer club. 

28. ON THE OTHER HAND (contrasting term meaning “however”)

Believing in yourself is often the secret to happiness.  On the other hand, excessive self-confidence can lead to disappointment.

29. REGARDLESS OF (or IRRESPECTIVE OF)

Any country in the world can qualify to host the Olympic games, regardless of whether or not that country has pre-existing facilities for the events. 

30. SAVE (means “except”)

Nazi Germany invaded most of Eastern Europe during World War II, save those countries whose governments caved to their demands.

31. SO LONG AS (means “as long as” – used to describe a prerequisite for something)

So long as you have finished all of your work, you are welcome to join our little expedition to the amusement park. 

32. TANTAMOUNT TO (means “equivalent to” or “same as” – used in saying that two things, the first normally considered less serious than the second, are essentially equal)

Finishing one of my math teacher's assignments is tantamount to getting several teeth pulled without anesthesia.

33. THANKS TO

Thanks to favorable weather conditions, the hiking party was able to reach the summit of the peak well in advance of the timetable they had prepared. 

37. VICE VERSA (used to refer to the reverse of something)

40. WHEREBY (used to describe specifically how some process or method works)

The large number of candidates in the original race forced a run-off election, whereby the top several candidates subjected themselves to another round of voting to determine the final winner.   

Eponyms are descriptive terms derived from proper names, usually from Greek and Roman mythology.  Because they come from proper names, they should usually be capitalized no matter where they occur in a sentence.  Foreign terms are words and phrases that are borrowed directly from another language, without any changes in spelling.  Both eponyms and foreign terms are considered quite fancy, so of course you should use them, but use them in moderation.

1. AVANT GARDE

This is a French term meaning “cutting edge” that usually refers to artists who create new trends in their work.  A synonym of this term would be the word "experimental."

In the early 20th century, making sculptures with ordinary objects like toilet seats was considered avant garde, but now it’s commonplace.

2. BONA FIDE

(BOH-nuh feyed, boh-nuh FEYE-dee, BON-uh feyed)

Genuine – used to describe “the real thing.”

The offer was a bona fide business opportunity, one that could not be passed up.
 
Though everyone knew he liked to brag, the college student turned out to be a bona fide genius, solving a math problem that had stumped the greatest minds.

3. CARTE BLANCHE

(kahrt BLAHNSH, kahrt BLAHNCH)

To be given “carte blanche” is to receive the power and authority to do as one wishes. Carte blanche is French for “blank card,” meaning a card that can be filled in whichever way a person chooses.

The prime minister herself did not take any action on the refugee issue but gave her minister of the interior carte blanche to deal with the situation.

Because they work long hours, some parents give their children carte blanche over the affairs of the home: the children can pretty much do whatever they like.     
     
4. COUP D’ ETAT

(kooh day-TAH)

A quick and decisive seizure of governmental power by a strong military or political group. The word “coup” by itself is often used metaphorically to refer to a sudden and surprising change in the status quo.

The Pakistani military launched a successful coup d’ etat against the civilian government, taking over power in less than a week.

Her becoming prom queen was a coup that shocked most of the student body, especially considering how unpopular she had been shortly before the prom announcement.

5. CRÈME DE LA CRÈME

(KREM duh luh KREM)

The best of the best. From French, meaning “cream of the cream.”     

Our school’s orchestra is acknowledged as the crème de la crème of high school music groups.

6. PER SE

Means "by itself" or "in itself."  Used with a word that is not 100% valid to describe something, but pretty close. 

Although he was not a genius per se, he was the top student in his class and was capable of some fairly impressive intellectual feats.

7. PERSONA NON GRATA

(puhr-SOH-nuh non GRAH-tuh, GRAT-tuh)

A person who is no longer favored or welcome.  From Latin, meaning “an unacceptable person.”

After my angry words with the manager, I am persona non grata at the video store.

By spreading malicious rumors about other students, she became persona non grata at the school.   

8. STATUS QUO

The existing order of things; the way things currently are.

People with money are often content with the economic status quo.

Even though they no longer loved each other, the husband and wife were afraid to disrupt the status quo of their comfortable suburban lives, so they never even considered the possibility of divorce. 

9. TOUR DE FORCE

(toor duh FAWRS)

A feat accomplished through great skill and ability, or a person capable of such a feat.

The speech was a tour de force; it swept the audience off its feet.

On the tennis court, Sid was a tour de force, delivering crushing defeats to opponent after opponent.  

10. ZEITGEIST

(TSEYT-geyst, ZEYT-geyst)

The general moral, intellectual, and cultural climate of an era; Zeitgeist is German for “spirit of the times.”   This term is usually used to refer to the cultural atmosphere of a historical period.

The Zeitgeist of the United States after 9-11 is very different from what it used to be: patriotism and fear have become much more common parts of the atmosphere of everyday life.

Charles Dickens captured the Zeitgeist of Victorian England brilliantly, filling his novels with characters and themes that vividly convey the cultural climate of that era.